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CS253 Not Fully Specified

What the language definition does not say.

Unlike many languages, the C++ standard leaves some choices up to the compiler. It defines several varieties of not-fully specified things:

Implementation-defined (§1.9.2): A choice made by the compiler, must be documented
Unspecified behavior (§1.9.3): A choice made by the compiler, need not be documented
Undefined behavior (§1.9.4): All bets are off!

Implementation-defined behavior

A choice made by the compiler, which must be documented.

The number of bytes or bits allocated to various types:

cout << sizeof(int) << '\n';

Floating-point precision:

float f = 123456789;
f += 3;
f -= 123456789;
cout << f << '\n';

Such choices are often heavily influenced by the hardware.

Implementation-defined behavior examples

What happens when a value gets too big for its signed variable:

short s = 32767;  // 🦡
cout << ++s;

-32768

Character set (ASCII, EBCDIC, HP Roman-8, Windows-1252, Big5, Shift JIS, various flavors of Unicode, etc.):

switch ('$') {
    case 0x24: cout << "ASCII or UTF-8"; break;
    case 0x5b: cout << "EBCDIC";         break;
    default:   cout << "WTF!?";          break;
}

ASCII or UTF-8

Implementation-defined behavior examples

When >> is used to shift a signed value, what comes in to replace the leftmost (sign) bit? It might be a copy of the sign bit, or it might be just a zero.

cout << (-1 >> 4) << '\n';  // 🦡

-1

system() invokes the command interpreter. Its result really depends on the host operating system.

system("date");
system("hostname");

Thu Nov 21 09:33:04 MST 2024
beethoven

Unspecified behavior

A choice made by the compiler, need not be documented or consistent, generally a “this-or-that” sort of choice.

Do not assume that expressions are evaluated left-to-right:

int foo() { cout << "foo"; return 0; }
int bar() { cout << "bar"; return 0; }

int main() {
    return foo()*bar();  // 🦡
}

foobar

Many students assume that expressions must be evaluated left-to-right. This is not true in C++.

Unspecified behavior examples

Do not assume that arguments are evaluated left-to-right:

int foo() { cout << "foo"; return 0; }
int bar() { cout << "bar"; return 0; }

void ignore_arguments(int, int) { }

int main() {
    ignore_arguments(foo(), bar());  // 🦡
}

barfoo

Unspecified behavior examples

Declaration order does not determine memory order:

int a,b;
if (&a < &b)  // 🦡
    cout << "a has a lower address\n";
else
    cout << "b has a lower address\n";

b has a lower address

Unspecified behavior examples

I suspect that byte order (little-endian, big-endian) is unspecified, since a program can’t detect byte order without an unspecified operation:

int word = 0x12345678;
short *sp = reinterpret_cast<short *>(&word);
cout << hex << *sp << '\n';

Undefined behavior

With undefined behavior, all bets are off!
Anything can happen. Consistency is not required.
Warnings are not required. If you’re lucky, a clever compiler might detect the problem. Or, it may not.

Undefined behavior

The U.S. Constitution requires of a new president:
- Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation:– I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.
No rules about hands during the oath. Hand position is undefined.
The president may do whatever with their hands: touch a holy book, wave the constitution, devil horns, vulcan salute, etc.
A president doesn’t have to do the same thing if re-elected.
Future presidents don’t have to do the same as previous presidents.

Undefined variables

If you want a value in a variable, put one there.

// Compiled without warnings or optimization.
int a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j;
cout << a << ' ' << b << ' ' << c << ' ' << d << ' ' << e << ' '
     << f << ' ' << g << ' ' << h << ' ' << i << ' ' << j << '\n';

0 0 32766 1857816928 0 4195904 0 4196528 0 0

Variables in a function are not initialized to zero, unless you write =0.
The compiler might complain, or it might not, depending on the circumstances.
Despite this, a quarter of the students, based on quiz results, will continue to believe that variables are magically initialized to zero.
Your program memory is cleared, once, by the operating system to hide data from previous programs.

Out-of-bounds array access

long a=11, b[] = {22,33}, c=44;
cout << a    << '\n'
     << b[2] << '\n'  // 🦡
     << c    << '\n';

11
44
44

Note that b only has two elements, but we accessed its third element with no complaints. Don’t do that!
Since b has only two elements, b[2] (the third element) accesses an adjacent memory location.

Undefined behavior

Similar code can produce quite different results.

long d[2];
cout << d[1] << endl;        // 🦡
cout << d[100] << endl;      // 🦡
cout << d[1000] << endl;     // 🦡
cout << d[1000000] << endl;  // 🦡

c.cc:2: warning: ‘d’ is used uninitialized
c.cc:1: note: ‘d’ declared here
0
140736745610446
SIGSEGV: Segmentation fault

Possibilities include:
- Detecting the problem at compile-time.
- Checking array bounds at runtime and displaying a nice error message.
- Doing the address arithmetic and just fetching whatever’s at that address.
- Or anything else, because the behavior is ⚡❢🌟💀 undefined.
C++ compilers usually don’t do runtime bounds checking, so the result depends on how near the array is to the edge of memory allocated to this program. Exceeding your memory boundaries gives a segmentation fault on typical Linux systems.

Undefined behavior examples

cout << "Hello, world!\n";
int *p = nullptr;
cout << *p << '\n';  // 🦡 Kaboom!

SIGSEGV: Segmentation fault

Why don’t we see the “Hello, world!”?

Buffering! Output does not go out immediately—that’s inefficient. Instead, the output accumulates, piles up in a buffer, until endl, flush, or program end. Program dies; output is lost. ☹

Interactive output is line-buffered, but these slides send the output to a file, so it’s fully buffered.

Undefined behavior examples

// Shifting too far:
int amount=35;
cout << (1<<amount);  // 🦡

The standard states that you can’t shift more than the word size, and can’t shift a negative amount.

Why not?

Since shifting is such a common operation, most CPUs have a shift instruction. For 32‑bit values, the shift amount is typically held in a five‑bit field in the instruction (2⁵ = 32). Alas, 35 cannot be represented in five bits, and we’re not going to slow down my correct program to check for errors in your faulty code.

Undefined behavior examples

// Multiple writes to the same location
// in a single expression:
int a = 0;
cout << ++a + ++a << '\n';  // 🦡

c.cc:4: warning: operation on ‘a’ may be undefined
c.cc:4: warning: operation on ‘a’ may be undefined
4

int b;
cout << b << '\n';  // 🦡

c.cc:2: warning: ‘b’ is used uninitialized
0

g++ notices some undefined behavior, not all. This is a QOI (Quality Of Implementation) aspect, but not a standards-conformance issue.

But, why??

C++ is quite concerned about efficiency.

The size of an int is implementation-defined so that the compiler can use the natural size provided by the architecture.
The size of an double is implementation-defined so that the compiler can use the available hardware floating-point format.
Some things are unspecified to give the compiler maximum freedom to generate fast code. Perhaps the compiler evaluates function arguments right-to-left because that’s the easiest order to push them onto the stack.

C++’s attitude is “You break the rules, you pay the price.” It doesn’t hold your hand.

Things Be Changin’

This is undefined behavior in C++14:

// C++ 2014
int i=5;
i = i++;  // 🦡
cout << i;

c.cc:3: warning: operation on ‘i’ may be undefined
c.cc:3: warning: operation on ‘i’ may be undefined
5

C++17, regarding assignment, says “The right operand is sequenced before the left operand”, so ++ finishes before =, and the output of this awful code is guaranteed to be 6:

// C++ 2017
int i=5;
i = i++;
cout << i;

c.cc:3: warning: operation on ‘i’ may be undefined
c.cc:3: warning: operation on ‘i’ may be undefined
5

Looks like the compiler (on the web server) hasn’t caught up to the standard.

Not just theoretical

Information from table 4–6 (page 4–11) of the Unisys C Compiler Programming Reference Manual:

Type	Bits	sizeof	Signed Range	Unsigned Max
char	9	1	−255 to 255	511
short	18	2	−2¹⁷+1 to 2¹⁷−1	2¹⁸−1
int	36	4	−2³⁵+1 to 2³⁵−1	2³⁶−2
long	36	4	−2³⁵+1 to 2³⁵−1	2³⁶−2
long long	72	8	−2⁷¹+1 to 2⁷¹−1

CS253: Software Development with C++

Spring 2023

Not Fully Specified

CS253 Not Fully Specified

What the language definition does not say.

Implementation-defined behavior

Implementation-defined behavior examples

Implementation-defined behavior examples

Unspecified behavior

Unspecified behavior examples

Unspecified behavior examples

Unspecified behavior examples

Undefined behavior

Undefined behavior

Undefined variables

Out-of-bounds array access

Undefined behavior

Undefined behavior examples

Undefined behavior examples

Undefined behavior examples

But, why??

Things Be Changin’

Not just theoretical