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CS253 Struct And Class

struct

• struct is the old C way of doing things.
• In C, there were no methods—only data members.
• Structs are still useful for holding unadorned data.

struct Point {
    int x, y;
};
Point p;
cout << p.x << '\n';
p.x = 8;
p.y = 9;
cout << p.x << ',' << p.y << '\n';

c.cc:5: warning: 'p.main()::Point::x' is used uninitialized in this function
0
8,9

class

• Classes have methods and data. Data is usually private.
• A class should have public methods to be useful, (e.g., a ctor) but private methods are also common.
• public & private define sections of the class.

class Point {
  public:
    Point(int a, int b) { x = a; y = b; }   // constructor (alias ctor)
    int get_x() const { return x; }         // accessor
    int get_y() const { return y; }         // accessor
    void go_right() { x++; }                // mutator
  private:
    int x, y;                               // Hands off!
};

Output

To make a class work for output, define operator<< appropriately:

class Point {
  public:
    Point(int a, int b) { x = a; y = b; }   // ctor
    int get_x() const { return x; }         // accessor
    int get_y() const { return y; }         // accessor
    void go_right() { x++; }                // mutator
  private:                                  // Mine!
    int x, y;
};

ostream &operator<<(ostream &out, const Point &p) {
    return out << p.get_x() << ',' << p.get_y();
}

int main() {
    Point p(12, 34);
    cout << p << '\n';      // invoke operator<<
}

12,34

Example

class Quoted {
    string s;
  public:
    Quoted(const string &word) : s(word) { }
    string get() const { return "“" + s + "”"; }
};

ostream &operator<<(ostream &os,
                    const Quoted &rhs) {
    return os << rhs.get();
}

int main() {
    Quoted name("Bob");
    cout << "Hi, " << name << "!\n";
}

Hi, “Bob”!

• s is private
• const reference argument
• member initialization
• operator<< not a method
• half-indent for public:
• return ostream reference

methods: in-line and not

Methods can be defined inside or outside of the class.

class Quoted {
    string s;
  public:
    Quoted(const string &word) : s(word) { }
    string get() const; // declaration only
};
string Quoted::get() const {
    return "“" + s + "”";
}
ostream &operator<<(ostream &os, const Quoted &rhs) {
    return os << rhs.get();
}

int main() {
    Quoted name("Slartibartfast");
    cout << "I am " << name << ".\n";
}

I am “Slartibartfast”.

Protection

• Class members (data & methods) can be public, private, or protected.
• The default is private for a class, public for a struct.
• public: anyone can access them
• private: nobody except other methods of this class can access them
• protected: can be accessed by this class, and by immediately derived class

Protection

class Foo {     // A class, with a variable of each type
  public:
    int pub;    // I’m public!
  private:
    int priv;   // I’m private!
  protected:
    int prot;   // I’m a little teapot, short & stout.
};

int main() {
    Foo f;

    f.pub = 1;          // great
    // f.priv = 2;      // nope
    // f.prot = 2;      // nope

    return f.pub;
}

Friends

Friend Declarations

One class can declare another class/method/function to be its friend:

class Foo {
    friend class Bar;
    friend double Zip::zulu(int) const;
    friend int alpha();
    friend std::ostream &operator<<(std::ostream &os, const Foo &);
  private:
    int x,y;
};

• All the methods of class Bar can access our data.
• So can the method zulu(int) const of the class Zip.
• So can the function (not method) alpha().
• So can the function operator<<(ostream &, const Foo &).

Restrictions

• Friendship is offered, not demanded
  • class A, via friend class B, offers friendship to class B.
• Friendship is not symmetric
  • If C is D’s friend, then D is not necessarily C’s friend.
• Friendship is not transitive
  • If E & F are friends, and F & G are friends, then E & G are strangers.
• Friendship is not inherited
  • If H is I’s friend, and I is the parent of J, then H & J are strangers.
• Inheritance does not imply friendship
  • If K is L’s parent, then K & L are strangers.

Don’t go nuts

• C++ programmers often fall in love with friend declarations, and overuse them.
• friend should be your last tool, not your first one.
  • Like casting.
• Minimize access: prefer method friendship to class friendship.
• Create accessors (getters) and mutators (setters) instead.
• If you’re using friend declarations to avoid the overhead of method calls, then you have no faith in current compilers. They’re quite good at inlining methods.

Counting

• Imagine that, for some reason, we wanted to keep track of how many instances of a class are extant (still exist).
• We’d need a counter.
• Every time a ctor is called, increment the counter.
• Every time a dtor is called, decrement the counter.

Try #1

class Foo {
  public:
    Foo() { counter++; }
    ~Foo() { counter--; }
    int get_count() const { return counter; }
  private:
    int counter=0;
};

int main() {
    Foo a, b, c, d, e;
    cout << e.get_count() << '\n';
}

1

Why doesn’t this work?

Try #2

int counter=0;

class Foo {
  public:
    Foo() { counter++; }
    ~Foo() { counter--; }
    int get_count() const { return counter; }
};

int main() {
    Foo a, b, c, d, e;
    cout << e.get_count() << '\n';
}

5

That works, but it has an evil global variable. 👹

Try #3

static int counter=0;

class Foo {
  public:
    Foo() { counter++; }
    ~Foo() { counter--; }
    int get_count() const { return counter; }
};

int main() {
    Foo a, b, c, d, e;
    cout << e.get_count() << '\n';
}

5

The scope of the static global variable is only this file, but that’s still too much.

Try #4

class Foo {
  public:
    Foo() { counter++; }
    ~Foo() { counter--; }
    int get_count() const { return counter; }
  private:
    static int counter=0;
};

int main() {
    Foo a, b, c, d, e;
    cout << e.get_count() << '\n';
}

c.cc:7: error: ISO C++ forbids in-class initialization of non-const static 
   member 'Foo::counter'

That failed.

Try #5

class Foo {
  public:
    Foo() { counter++; }
    ~Foo() { counter--; }
    int get_count() const { return counter; }
  private:
    static int counter;
};
int Foo::counter = 0;

int main() {
    Foo a, b, c, d, e;
    cout << e.get_count() << '\n';
}

5

There we go! Only a single, shared, counter, with class scope.

static class variables

A static member variable:

• has class scope
• can be public, protected, or private
• is shared between all instances of this class
• must be externally defined.

static methods

A static method:

• has class scope
• can be public, protected, or private
• can be called without an instance of the class
• can’t access non-static data members, because those go with instances
• can’t call non-static data methods, because those go with instances.

const methods

class Ratio {
  public:
    Ratio(int a, int b) : top(a), bottom(b) { }
    double get_real() {
        return top / double(bottom);
    }
  private:
    int top, bottom;
};

int main() {
    const Ratio f(355,113);
    cout << f.get_real() << '\n';
}

c.cc:13: error: passing 'const Ratio' as 'this' argument discards qualifiers

Oops—can’t call a non-const method on a const object.

const methods

class Ratio {
  public:
    Ratio(int a, int b) : top(a), bottom(b) { }
    double get_real() const {
        return top / double(bottom);
    }
  private:
    int top, bottom;
};

int main() {
    const Ratio f(355,113);
    cout << f.get_real() << '\n';
}

3.14159

Making Ratio::get_real() const fixed it. It also properly indicates that get_real() doesn’t change the object.

Rationale

• Yeah, but …, that’s stupid.
• Nobody would ever declare a const Ratio like that.
• Fair enough.
• Let’s look at a realistic scenario.

const methods

class Ratio {
  public:
    Ratio(int a, int b) : top(a), bottom(b) { }
    double get_real() const {
        return top / double(bottom);
    }
  private:
    int top, bottom;
};

void show_ratio(Ratio r) {
    cout << r.get_real() << '\n';
}

int main() {
    Ratio f(355,113);
    show_ratio(f);
}

3.14159

That call to show_ratio copies an object by value. Expensive! 😱

const methods

class Ratio {
  public:
    Ratio(int a, int b) : top(a), bottom(b) { }
    double get_real() const {
        return top / double(bottom);
    }
  private:
    int top, bottom;
};

void show_ratio(const Ratio &r) {
    cout << r.get_real() << '\n';
}

int main() {
    Ratio f(355,113);
    show_ratio(f);
}

3.14159

r is now const, so get_real() must be const.

Implementation

The compiler’s implementation of a const method is simple; it regards the hidden implicit pointer argument this as pointing to a const object, which explains the message:

class Foo {
  public:
    void zip() {}
};

int main() {
    const Foo f;
    f.zip();
}

c.cc:8: error: passing 'const Foo' as 'this' argument discards qualifiers

In Foo::zip(), this is type Foo *, which can’t point to const Foo f.

Poor Strategy

• Some students think, “figuring out which methods should be const is too much work; I’ll add const later”.
  • This is a disaster in the making.
  • Half an hour before the homework is due, the student decides that it’s const-time.
  • The student adds const to a single method.
  • This causes problems with all the non-const methods called by the newly-const method.
  • Making those methods const causes problems with the non-const methods that they call.
  • The student gives up, and turns in uncompilable code.
  • The student remembers only that it’s all const’s fault, and vows never to use const again.

Good Strategy

• If, instead, the student had declared methods const as they were written, then there wouldn’t be this “OMG, I’m doomed” moment.

constexpr variable

• We’ve already seen a constexpr variable, whose value is fixed at compile-time:
  

  constexpr double pi=3.1415926535897932;
  pi = 22.0/7.0;
  

  c.cc:2: error: assignment of read-only variable 'pi'
  

• It’s a crime against language to call it a “variable”, because it doesn’t vary.
• const means you don’t change it (but others can).
• constexpr means that it simply does not change. The compiler can use that information to produce better instructions.
• There are also constexpr methods.

constexpr methods

class Foo {
  public:
    constexpr int bar() { return 42; }
};

Foo f;
cout << f.bar();

42

• I would’ve thought that the constexpr would go after the (). Too bad for me!
• This means that the compiler must calculate this value at compile-time.

constexpr methods

class Foo {
  public:
    constexpr int bar() { return getpid(); }
};

Foo f;
cout << f.bar();

c.cc:3: error: call to non-'constexpr' function '__pid_t getpid()'

• constexpr means “Listen, compiler: you must execute this function at compile-time (given constexpr arguments). If you can’t, complain and die.”
• Hence, the compiler verifies your claim that the function is doable at compile-time. Think of it as an assertion.

Temporary files

• Often, in programming, you need a temporary file, with a unique name.
• In Linux, these typically reside in the directory /tmp.
• Give it a meaningful name, in case of a misbehaving program.
• Two people might run your program simultaneously.
• Functions such as mkstemp help create a unique file.
• You should remove the file, even if your code takes an early return or an exception is caught.
• A class can help with that—dtors love doing cleanup.

Conversion methods

class Tempfile {
  public:
    Tempfile() { close(mkstemp(name)); }
    ~Tempfile() { remove(name); }
    string tempname() const { return name; }
  private:
    char name[32] = "/tmp/cs253-XXXXXX";
};

Tempfile t;
const string fname = t.tempname();
cout << fname << '\n';

/tmp/cs253-qwXerG

• Ctor creates a temporary file; dtor destroys it.
• The method .tempname() gets the name of the temporary file.
  • Really, that’s the only thing that you do with it.
• Can we make this even easier?

Conversion methods

Let’s add an operator string method:

class Tempfile {
  public:
    Tempfile() { close(mkstemp(name)); }
    ~Tempfile() { remove(name); }
    operator string() const { return name; }
  private:
    char name[32] = "/tmp/cs253-XXXXXX";
};

Tempfile t;
const string fname = t;
cout << fname << '\n';

/tmp/cs253-lOavYr

Just treat it like a std::string, and it works!